Traditional fish processing methods enhance fish availability, affordability, and choice, thereby promoting nutrition, health, and well-being. Fish processing and sales in fishing communities in West Africa, including Nigeria, have been reported as a “gendered” activity comprising mainly women [16]. Governance structure for the traditional fish processing sector is a descriptive and adaptable framework which underscores the importance of these gender dimensions. Access to fish after harvest is determined by the relative position and scale of operation of women in fish processing. Scales at which women play these roles often attract different description by fishermen and male folks. Richly endowed women are able to influence happening within the value chain downstream dictating fish supply direction over the less fortunate women processor and attract better patronage from the fishers. Women are also able upset local arrangements with regards to credit scheme facilitated between the fisher and the female processors.
Overview of small-scale fisheries in Nigeria
Nigeria’s fisheries sector is almost exclusively artisanal or small-scale, grossly underdeveloped, and highly heterogeneous. It contributes over 70% to domestic fish production, providing livelihoods to approximately 6.4 million fisher folk [12]. The main fishing and fishing-related activities are carried out in fishing settlements located in the Atlantic coastal area of the southern part of the country. Species-rich brackish water and estuarine canoe fisheries occupying about 12,904 km2 exist in the creeks, estuaries, lagoons, and mangrove wetlands. Women fishers play prominent roles in this fishery [12]. Marine fishing is dominated by the coastal mechanized and canoe fisheries operating within five nautical miles of the sea shore, which is statutorily designated as non-trawling zone and 39,644 km2 continental shelf area adjacent to the country’s 853 km coastline.
Migrant fishers from neighbouring West African nations exploit fisheries resources 120 nautical miles within the extensive frontiers of the country’s 216,325 km2 Exclusive Economic Zone in the Gulf of Guinea [17]. Further inland, freshwater fisheries thrive consisting of nationwide network of rivers such as the Niger and Benue with several tributaries, natural lakes (e.g. Lake Chad), man-made lakes (e.g. Lake Kainji), reservoirs, and flood plains totalling an estimated 12.5 million hectares [17].
The SSF sub-sector is also multi-gear and multi-species in character. The craft and type of net depend on the type of fishery operated. Gears such as purse-seine net, set gill net, cast nets, encircling nets, traps, fyke nets, bag nets, pots, wounding gears, baskets and traps, drift and set gill nets, long lines, and trawl nets are used to target different fish species. Crafts (3–13 m long) used range from paddled, small-sized planked, or dugout canoes to larger, motorized canoes (half dugout/half plank) with outboard engines ranging from 15 to 45 hp, which are more like the vessel type commonly employed in Ghana.
Major freshwater fishes are fished year-round. Target species commonly caught include Nile perch (Lates spp.); tilapias (Oreochromis and Hemichromis spp.); catfishes (Clarias, Heterobranchus and Synodontis spp.): silver catfishes (Chrysichthys and Bagrus spp.); elephant snouts (Gnathonemus and Momyrus spp.); trunk fish (Gymanarchus spp.); tongue fish (Heterotis spp.); and moon fish (Citharinus) spp. [18]. The fish community inhabiting the estuaries, creeks, and coastal waters consists of small pelagics of the family Clupeidae. Bonga (Ethmalosa sp.) dominates the coastal pelagic fishery. Sardines (Sardinella sp.), shad (Ilishaafricana
) various jacks (Caranx spp.), and Atlantic bumpers (Chloroscombrus chrysurus) are also caught in modest quantities. Croakers (Pseudotolithus spp.) constitute the main commercial demersal stock [18] in coastal and brackish fisheries. Other exploited species include grunters (Brachydeuterus sp.), soles (Cynoglossus spp.), marine catfish (Arius sp.), brackish water catfish (Chrisichthys), Sphyraena spp. (barracuda), snappers (Lutjanus sp.), threadfins (Galeoides decadactylus, Pentanemusquinquarius), and groupers (Epinephelus). Common exploited shellfish resources are estuarine/white shrimps (“crayfish”) (Palaemon sp.) which supports a major creek fishery in the Niger Delta, Macrobrachium vollenhovenii (African river prawn); M. macrobrachion (Brackishwater Prawn); marine and estuarine Penaeus notialis (Southern pink shrimp); Parapenaeopsisatlantica and (Guinea shrimp). Other shellfishes include crabs of the genus Callinectes in the families Portunidae and Geryonidae, molluscs such as the mangrove oyster (Crassotreagasar), periwinkles (Tympanostomus spp.), and certain bivalves [19].
Actual production figures from SSF could be grossly undervalued. There is limited information on the state of fisheries resources nationwide. Many water bodies have not been assessed for their fisheries potentials, and stock assessments available are very few in number and out-dated. There is potential underestimation in catches ranging between 100,000 and 180,000 mt annually for artisanal shrimp fisheries, part-time fishermen, and brackish water areas [20]. When combined with poor availability of data from freshwater fisheries, this implies an enormous gap in overall fish landings for the country. Fishing communities are numerous and generally highly scattered in remote, inaccessible settlements due to poor or non-existent access roads and susceptibility to flooding during the rainy seasons. They usually do not have access to basic social infrastructures. Facilities such as cold storage and processing plants are very poorly developed. There is, therefore, heavy reliance on traditional fish processing and preservation methods which, unfortunately, are bedevilled by gross under-capacity and improper handling particularly during the peak fishing period.
PHLs are characteristics of SSF in developing nations, and an accurate estimation of total losses is problematic. In Nigeria, these have been reported to exceed 30% of the total catch [21]. A seasonal glut occurs between November to May for sardines and Bonga (Clupeids). Under these circumstances, fisherfolk are unable to cope with heavy fish catches, resulting in substantial quantities of fish being wasted, leading to putrefying gluts of spoilt fish which litter the sandy beaches and buried spoilt fish in the sands [22, 23]. The difficulty experienced in the evacuation, distribution, and marketing of fish products further contributes to a high percentage of PHL along the entire value chain from harvest to consumption. Ultimately, regardless of the quantity of fish wasted, this waste also translates into huge financial losses, reduction in the quantity of available fish supplied, and animal protein for human consumption, respectively, thus threatening food security.
Fish trade and food and nutritional security: Nigeria scenario
Nigeria is ranked among 55 nations classified as being low-income food-deficit countries (LIFDCs). This list, created by the FAO in 2014, is based on three criteria. First, a country should have a per capita gross national income (GNI) below the “historical” ceiling used by the World Bank to determine eligibility for International Development Association (IDA) assistance and for 20-year International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) terms, applied to countries included in World Bank’s categories I and II. The 2014 LIFDC list is based on the GNI for 2011 (estimated by the World Bank using the Atlas method) and the historical ceiling of USD 1 945 in 2011.
The second criterion is based on the net (i.e. gross imports less gross exports) food trade position of a country averaged over the preceding three years for which statistics are available. Trade volumes for a broad basket of basic foodstuffs (cereals, roots and tubers, pulses, oilseeds and oils other than tree crop oils, meat and dairy products) are converted and aggregated by the calorie content of individual commodities. Thirdly, the self-exclusion criterion is applied when countries that meet the above two criteria specifically request to be excluded from the LIFDC category.
This designation means that the country must pursue a policy of balancing the quest for fish trade and food security in relation to fish as a food or commodity. Fish is an important component of the National Economy and Trade, since Nigeria is both a fish exporting and importing nation. Fish has an inherent tendency to be commoditized, and seafood have been commodities that were preserved and traded since the Bronze Age [24]. Therefore, fish have played an important role in the first phase of the emergence of a global economy and a singular role in the international expansion of trade before becoming an internationally traded commodity in its own right.
Specific to fish, Nigeria has a positive net food trade averaged over the previous three years [12]. Products emanating from the industrial fisheries, and shrimp in particular, are destined for the European and American markets where they attract premium values. The protein needs for the domestic markets are, therefore, met largely by supply from the artisanal fisheries, importation, and, by far less, aquaculture. The poor state of infrastructure, especially electricity supply and irregularity of fish supply from SSF occasioned by unpredictability of catch, fuel the need to resort to traditional means of processing by fishmongers. Generally speaking, infrastructure required driving both the quest for fish food security and trade has been reported [25] and will include fish landing centres, processing facilities, link roads, stable electricity, portable water supply, housing, and sanitary and environmental engineering works. These infrastructures can be broadly grouped as livelihood and trade related.
The scenario we have today is that investment directions in infrastructure development have been tilted largely in favour of trade-related infrastructure development favouring exportation and importation. Although the traditional food processing business invariably benefits from increased link roads and improved electricity, it presently suffers from neglect over the years to ensure broad-based investment in provision of processing facilities, storage, good hygienic practices (GHP)/good manufacturing practice (GMP), or sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOP), or prerequisite programmes for food safety. In contrast, food safety and quality management have become standards in the formal fish trade markets. The fish processing business requires that effective hygienic, quality, and safe food be promoted. A good healthy environment is crucial if food supplies are to ensure food security and nutritional well-being.
Fish in the Nigerian Food Policy have been largely directed towards increasing production, with lessening emphasis on getting the processing and distribution right. Efficient and effective domestic fish marketing is the ground rules for achieving sustainable fish food, nutritional well-being, and, ultimately, sustainable development. Presently, traditional fish processing techniques of salting, smoking, and sun-drying are at the centre of guaranteeing fish protein, food security, and nutritional well-being. The more lucrative export fish trade is the focus of medium fish processors whose major supply is from the aquaculture supply. The traditional fish processing methods are faced with serious challenges in view of the increased consumers’ awareness on matter of food safety and qualities.
There is a general sense of apathy from government for monitoring, regulating, and intervening in the business of traditional processing by means of interventions such as the modernization of PHL reduction technologies, product standardization, and regulation. The need for government to give direction is of the utmost importance, given that the small-scale operators are not organized to create the necessary structures that must be put in place to bring about the required changes. They do not enjoy the economic stimulus offered by foreign international markets.
Nutritional status of children in Nigeria
The 2013 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey provided new insight on the nutritional status of children and adults in the country [26]. About 37% of children under 5 years old in Nigeria are stunted, thus reflecting chronic malnutrition. National figures show that approximately 10–20% encountered acute malnutrition and 29% are described as underweight, reflecting chronic or acute malnutrition or a combination of both [26]. Under-nutrition is described as an outcome of insufficient food intake and repeated infectious diseases, while malnutrition refers to both under-nutrition and over-nutrition [27].
The problem of micronutrient deficiencies is different in nature as it results from an inadequate quality of diet. Micronutrient deficiencies increase the general risk of infectious illness (e.g. measles) and non-infectious diseases such as malaria and pneumonia, or even diarrhoea. Adequate intake of essential micronutrients, especially by pregnant women and young children, is important to attaining nutritional security. Appropriate nutrition includes feeding children with a variety of foods to ensure that nutrient requirements are met. It is well known that plant-based complementary foods (food given to a child after exclusive breastfeeding) by themselves are insufficient to meet the needs for certain micronutrients [1, 2]. It has been advised that meat, poultry, fish, or eggs should be eaten daily, or as often as possible. Fish has been variously suggested to be an important part of infant feed or complementary food [1, 2].
Contribution of fish and SSF to food security and nutrition in Nigeria
To understand the importance of SSF in contributing to food security, it is necessary to grasp the significance of underlying factors which affect fish consumption patterns. In 2002, the FAO estimated that fish provide about 19% of the protein intake in developing countries with the following qualification: “the figure, however, represents an average at a global level and does not reflect the very large heterogeneity at the national or, even more importantly, at the local level. Similarly, fish contribution to animal protein consumption can be as low as 23% in Liberia and as high as 63.2% in Ghana” [13].
In Nigeria, fish is reported to be the most frequently consumed animal protein consumed by households [28]. Per capita fish consumption in Nigeria increased from an estimated 13.71 kg in 1993 to 14.49 kg in 2000 [20]. However, comparing Nigeria’s per capita fish consumption of 13.9 kg to the global average of 18.9 kg in 2011 [29] shows that fish consumption is still inadequate. Disaggregating national data [25], (see footnote 1) the percentage of fish as animal protein at the national level is 35, or between 41.15 and 43.1 of animal source protein and 39.7 of animal-source food [29]. While cultural standards appear to have no bearing on motivations to consume fish [30], decisions around the consumption and choice of fish product form is governed by factors such as income and market values. Other important factors are the urban–rural divide, non-fishing households versus fishing households, and relative distance or proximity to common-pool resources. However, much of the sector’s contribution to rural household consumption is often undervalued, and their importance ignored. In the Nigerian context, small-scale fisheries supply as much as 75% of animal protein intake in coastal or inland fishing communities [31]. Generally, fishing households have greater access to fish for direct consumption. Fish from common-pool resources or open-access regimes are literally free for harvesting and contribute in large part to nutritional security at the local level, particularly in the diets of poor people. Subsistence fishing of small fish, crustaceans, and molluscs, though almost marginal in terms of quantity, plays an important role in the food and nutritional security of household members. Consequently, per capita annual consumption of fish in fishing households (an average 230 g per day) is usually higher compared to non-fishing households [31].
Pathways linking traditional fish processing and nutritional security to national development
The national aggregate wealth generated from inland fish production and consequently traditionally processed fish are estimated between US$ 230–330 million and US$ 280 million per year.Footnote 4
,
Footnote 5 Processing is an important activity within the fishing industry, although it is often ignored. However, it is very evident that traditional processing like small-scale fisheries, in general, is an activity that is too big to ignore. As a sub-sector, its economic output provides an important dimension and interlinked pathways to national development in many ways.
Directly, traditional fish processing contributes to food and nutritional security in terms of the utilization, availability, and stability of price at the individual or household, regional, and national levels. Increased levels of protein, carbohydrates, fat, and energy were recorded in boiled, grilled, and fried fish in comparison with the raw forms [32]. Smoked products offered the healthiest advantage with the lowest values of saturated fatty acids, index of atherogenicity, index of thrombogenicity, and the highest omega-3/-6 ratios, which are important for reducing coronary heart disease (CHD) in food consumption [1]. Furthermore, smoking increases the concentration of alanine, threonine, tyrosine, and cysteine and accounts for a sweeter taste of the shrimp over other product forms, while sun-dried specimens were found to have increased levels of histidine and arginine [1, 2].
In a country with high levels of malnutrition among children in many regions, the eradication of malnutrition is a critical national development goal. It is well established that fish products as a form of animal protein can effectively be used as complementary foods to fight malnutrition. In addition, since nutrients from seafood are cheaper than other sources of animal nutrients, consuming processed fish products (which are reported to compare even better than raw fish) provides affordable high-quality protein. It is cheaper to eat processed fish forms such as sun-dried, smoked, grilled, and boiled (authors’ experience).
The present disdain and apathy with which traditional fish processing methods are viewed require a change in policy direction to ensure increased fish availability, particularly in a country where every gram of protein and energy is crucial for reducing considerably the nation’s high protein–energy malnutrition (PEM). The national average protein and energy intake of 53 g and 2071 kcal is below the World Health Organization (WHO) standard. Thus, it is crucial to provide support to the traditional fish processing sector and to improve the access of citizens, especially children, to processed fish protein.
Traditional fish processing activities and gender
Fish value chains are highly gendered and fraught with inequalities, creating food security and nutrition challenges at local, regional, and national levels. It is well known that of workers in SSF, women working in processing outnumber men. Unfortunately, much of the work performed by women in post-harvest processing is not compensated or is poorly recorded. Hence, to understand the gendered dynamics between actors in the value chain in the production of traditionally processed fish, it is essential to consider the governance structure for this important sub-sector.
In Nigeria, the traditional culture of the people is the basis of community-level governance structures, including in fishing communities [15, 33]. Artisanal fish processing and preservation activities are primarily carried out by women. However, in rare instances cultural norms restrict the participation of women in post-harvest activities at landing sites, thus leaving post-harvest activities to men. Women often engage in fish processing as their sole economic activity, or combine this with tasks upstream or downstream the value chain, or outside of fishing altogether [15]. Fish processing is carried out at different scales, depending on the quantity of fish being handled. The producer–processor group, which occurs the most, is prevalent in rural fishing communities and may involve male fishers [34]. Women processors obtain their supplies from within their family (usually the husband), while a small number of women engage in fishing themselves with the use of both trap setting and gear netting. Sometimes, women fishers obtain fish under different purchase arrangements from their male counterparts. Processor–sellers/traders form another category which mostly consists of women who combine functions of processing and marketing [35]. Lastly, women engaged solely in the trading of processed fish buy their products at either wholesale or retail markets. They also sell via commission agents or brokers to different market intermediaries. Sometimes commission agents or brokers serve as links between the many intermediaries along the value chain.
Evaluation of traditional fish processing technologies
Technology drives many human endeavours at all levels of human activities and history, from rudimentary tools to advanced modern-day technology. Community-based knowledge, which has evolved in every culture over a long period of time in many generations, is referred to as indigenous knowledge (IK) or traditional knowledge (TK). However, TK/IK may have borrowed extensively from the process of technological adaption as people began to borrow from other knowledge outside of their geographical location and traditional practices. In the case of fisheries and fish processing in particular, women employ the use of TK/IK in preserving fish in order to increase its shelf life and ensure value addition. Common traditional methods include gutting, washing, splitting, filleting, and sticking the fish, cooking, salting (brining), smoking, curing, fermentation, and sun-drying (drying).
Cooking
It is the most common and simple method requiring no more than basic household equipment which provides short-term preservation of fish usually for a few days before any deterioration becomes noticeable. Although warming after cooking does extend the period, a loss in value quickly becomes discernible. Different methods are used for cooking fish, but the principle of these processes is similar. The flesh of the fish softens, enzymes become inactivated, and the process kills many of the bacteria present on the surface of the fish.
Salting
Salting is by far the most influential form of fish preservation and trade, serving as the precursor for international commodity trading. The principle is based on the knowledge that food-poisoning bacteria cannot live in salty conditions and a concentration of 6–10% salt in fish tissue will prevent bacterial activity, thereby impacting a longer shelf life. However, a group of micro-organisms known as “halophytic bacteria” are salt-loving and will spoil the salted fish even at a concentration of 6–10%. Traditional methods of using salt usually involve removing the guts and gills and cutting the flesh into pieces before rubbing salt into the flesh or making alternate layers. The recommended levels of salt usage are 30–40% of the prepared weight of the fish.
However, the concentration of salt in the flesh is not sufficient to preserve the fish if it is not uniformly applied. Brining offers a better preservation over the direct application of salt to the fish muscle and tissues. This process involves immersing the fish into a pre-prepared solution (36% salt). The advantage is that the salt concentration can be more easily controlled and salt penetration is more uniform.
In most fish preservation, it is a usual practice to use salt in combination with other means of preservation. Nevertheless, the use of salt curing for food preparation must be approached with a high degree of caution, since high salt intake is deleterious to good health. The growing concern is founded in reports of increased heart palpitations in some individuals. This occurrence could predispose pre-hypertensive and hypertensive individuals to additional health risks. Thus, there is a need to investigate and ensure safe concentrations of domestic salt in fish preservation.
Sun-drying
This process consists of the use of the sun and movement of air to remove moisture and preserve the fish. In order to prevent spoilage, the moisture content needs to be reduced to 25% or less. The time it takes to dry fish products depends on the nature of the product, the intensity of the sun, and the surfaces used for drying. The simplest form of drying involves exposing whole small fish or split large fish to heat from the sun by placing products either directly on the ground, roofs, nets, and mats placed on the ground or on racks. However, this technique makes the fish susceptible to predations by animals. This method is commonly used in the Northern parts of the country, due to the sun’s intensity and other favourable conditions such as dry weather, low humidity, and clear skies [2]. Fish is typically sun-dried for three to ten days, but drying periods of one to three days are more common [36].
Sun-drying has found favour with fishmongers for centuries, producing fish meat that is condensed, saturated with oil, translucent and amber in colour, dense in consistency, and pleasant in taste. Impediments to the use of this method are related to product quality as well as safety. Sun-drying does not allow very much control over drying times, and it also exposes the fish to attack by insects or vermin and there are all possibilities of contamination by sand and dirt. Other constraints include considerable product losses, lower fish quality because of contamination by foreign materials, reduced protein quality, insects and micro-organisms as well as discolouring by ultraviolet radiation [36].
During the drying process, the fish surface dries faster and hardens, thereby locking moisture inside, which slows the drying process and encourages degradation of protein and fatty acid oxidation. Degradation of protein is accelerated when fish products are subjected to high temperatures for an extended period. Since traditional sun-drying is weather dependent, some losses in quality also result from inadequate drying.
Smoking
Smoking is used mainly to preserve fish, partly by drying and partly by adding naturally produced anti-microbiological constituents such as phenols from the smoke to the fish. Smoking is a preferred method of preservation because it dries the fish, melts some fat out of the fish, and reduces microbial growth. When this is achieved, smoking is expected to extend the shelf life of most fish products to several weeks. However, in recent times it is being used in addition to preservation to achieve the characteristic taste and appearance of the smoked fish. Heat from the fire causes drying, and if the temperature is high enough, the flesh becomes cooked. Both of these factors prevent bacterial growth and enzyme activity, thus preventing spoilage.
Fish smoking differs according to the type of kiln technology used and can be categorized as the following types:
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Cold smoking: In this method, the temperature is not high enough to cook the fish. It is not usually higher than 35 °C.
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Hot smoking: In this method, the temperature is high enough to cook fish. Hot smoking is often the preferred method. Traditionally, in West Africa in particular, fish smoking is the most extensively practiced fish preservation method in Ghana and Nigeria, which uses the traditional kiln with wood burning temperatures between 300 and 700 °C (for wood combustion) usually 70–80 °C of the oven temperature. This is because the process requires less control than cold processing and the shelf life of the hot-smoked product is longer because the fish is smoked until dry. Hot smoking consumes more fuel than the cold smoking method.
The wholesomeness of smoked fish products using the traditional kiln depends on the following factors: the type of wood used for the smoking process; the temperature used; the duration of smoking; the type of kiln used; the proximity of the fish from fire; the type of fish being smoked; and the fat content of the fish [37]. The primary challenge with the traditional kiln technology common across Nigeria, and West Africa in general, has to do with the temperature regulatory system of the design, which poses difficulties for the commercial fishmongers operating this type of technology.
Smoking temperatures result in the release of a wide range of antioxidant and antimicrobial chemicals like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phenols, aldehydes, and acetic acids, some of which are known to be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and endocrine disrupting [38, 39]. PAHs produced in wood smokes are known to originate from the thermal pyrolysis (depolymerization) of lignin and subsequent condensation of the lignin components in lignocelluloses at temperatures above 350 °C. Charcoal used as filters in modified traditional smoking kilns is effective in removing PAHs from the smoke generated, thus potentially posing little or no health effects on consumers. Therefore, the adoption of this method may help reduce the levels of PAH-associated health effects like cancer and other cancer-related ailments which is reported to be on the increase in Ghana [40]. A typical system for traditional fish smoking in Nigeria is shown in Fig. 2.
Certain traditional fish processing practices constitute occupational and health hazards to consumers, processors, and the environment. A study in Nigeria indicated that smoked catfish/sole fish from commercial fishmongers using a traditional smoking kiln showed elevated levels of PAHs compared to the modern kiln [41]. The study postulated that this trend may be associated with increasing cases of cancer and cancer-related ailments in the nation. Generally, fish that is smoke-cured with hardwoods (e.g. acacia and mangrove) for a longer duration (≥4 h) using the traditional kiln may be unsafe for consumption, but sugarcane bagasse-cured fish using the traditional kiln was both the safest and the best fish smoking practice for short-duration smoking [37]. There may be elevated risks of cancer and non-cancerous diseases associated with lifelong (70 years) consumption of mackerel and sardine that is smoke-cured with hardwoods, especially at longer smoking durations due to their high lipid content.
Long hours and many years spent smoking fish have negatively impacted the health of women processors. Exposure to smoke from the burning of biomass fuels, including firewood, is a major risk factor for several respiratory ailments, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), respiratory tract infections, and lung cancer [42]. A study in the rural fishing community of Obaka has shown that women processors are exposed to increased risk of developing COPD compared to women who do not work in the fish smoking business [43]. The smoke also causes redness/swelling of the eye, poor vision, rashes, eczema, pile, rheumatism, diarrhoea, dysentery, and heat [44]. Fish processors could also be exposed to smoke particles that contain potential or confirmed carcinogens such as PAHs. Milder forms of occupational hazards linked to fish processing include sting from fish spines, minor cuts, and scrapes [45]. Overall, poor socio-economic status, poor nutrition, exposure to other sources of indoor air pollutants such as mosquito coils and kerosene lamps, and risk of injuries, combined with poor access to sanitation and healthcare facilities, increase risks of developing health hazards linked to fish smoking [45].
In addition, the use of firewood as the major energy source in traditional smoking kilns has drawn some other criticism on the bases of economic and environmental consequences. The supply of fuel wood is characterized by scarcity, rendering it costly for fish smoking [46]. The practice is also time-consuming and considered wasteful due to the small quantities of fish that are smoked at a time [45]. Exploitation and consumption of firewood for fish drying and other uses is a contributory factor to continued deforestation in the country, particularly in the arid Northern region where this practice is contributing to desertification [47]. Although heat treatments may impact on the nutritive values of traditionally preserved fish, the overall quality has been demonstrated not to have significant differences from the fresh or raw fish [1, 2]. In many instances, the reduction in nutritive value may be due to the method used for the analyses rather than due to impact of intervention [1].
Curing
Curing involves the techniques of drying, dry salting/brining (soaking in salt solution), or smoking. These may be used alone or in various combinations to produce a range of products with a long shelf life. For example:
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Drying–smoking–drying.
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Brining–smoking–drying.
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Salting–drying.
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Salting–drying–smoking.
These techniques reduce the water content in the flesh of the fish, thereby preventing the growth spoilage caused by micro-organisms. Curing is not widely used in Nigeria, along with fish fermentation and deep frying.