Table 2 Characteristics of the Middle East studies on the food insecurity domains during the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak
No | Author, date | Study design | Population, sampling, sample size | Food security measurement | Impact of COVID-19 outbreak on food security dimensions | Policies/programs to cope | Quality of the study | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Availability | Access | Utilization | Stability | |||||||
Afghanistan | ||||||||||
1 | FAO, 2021[36] | The two rounds of the agricultural household assessment | 7200 rural households in 12 provinces (first round) and 20 provinces (second round), two-step cluster approach | Computer-assisted telephone interviews (first round) and in-person interviews (second round) | 38% of respondents farmed a smaller area than the previous year | – | – | Households cited security and conflict as a shock more frequently than others (51%) | Almost all surveyed households reported the need for some form of assistance with their crop and livestock production | High |
Egypt | ||||||||||
2 | Breisinger, et al. 2020 [36] | Estimation via modeling | – | – | Impacts on Egypt’s agri-food system are not severe. Most damage will occur in nonfarm components of the agri-food system due to falling consumer demand | Although higher income households face the largest income losses, lower income households also will see their incomes decline significantly | – | The level of social protection required to fully offset the income losses of poor households is likely to be prohibitive | Continuing to gradually open the economy again will be critical for avoiding permanent job losses and increases in poverty and provide opportunities for fostering more private sectors | High |
Iran | ||||||||||
3 | Pakravan et al. 2022 [48] | Cross-sectional | 375 household heads living in the rural areas of Khorramabad county, using a three-stage cluster sampling method | Standard Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS)questionnaires | Consumption of meat, fruits, and eggs has decreased despite the increase in consumption of cereals, legumes, sweets, spices, condiments, and beverages | About 34.5% of rural households were in severe food insecurity before the COVID-19 pandemic, which increased to 52.5% | Emergency food assistance and cash payments to food-insecure households | Medium | ||
4 | Kaviani-Radety et al., 2021 [20] | Survey | Various evidence, including indices and statistics from national databases, scientific reports, field observations, and interviews | Existing data | Reduce the capacity of the agricultural sector | 30% decrease in the purchasing power parity in 2020; a significant increase in food prices compared to 2019 | Food prices significantly increased | Paying subsidies to low-income households | Medium | |
5 | Cross-sectional analysis through an online survey | 299 respondents, non-probability sampling | Online standard questionnaire, Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) | A significant insufficient quality and quantity of food intake | Food security of households improved at the early stage of COVID-19 | Distributing free food baskets for poor households, extending e-marketing, providing nutrition consultative, and encouraging donors to support families | ||||
Iraq | ||||||||||
6 | WFP, World Bank, IFAD, FAO, 2020 [12] | Review | Secondary data | Food production, prices, imports, reserves, and consumption | Food availability remained stable due to steady international food trade flows and favorable domestic production | More than 50% eroding income sources and decreasing their ability to meet their food needs | – | The number of households with insufficient food consumption fluctuated. Price stability remained a concern | Diversifying import sources, investing in a food security early warning system, and restructuring social protection policy can increase the resilience of Iraq’s agriculture and food system to current and future shocks | High |
Jordan | ||||||||||
7 | Raouf et al. 2021 [43] | Food systems in Jordan are estimated to have experienced a reduction in output by almost 40% | Employment losses during the lockdown were estimated at over 20%, mainly driven by job losses in services, followed by agriculture | Household income fell on average by around one-fifth due to the lockdown | Economic diversification, greater resilience to withstand economic shocks and job creation | High | ||||
8 | Elsahoryi et al. 2020 [49] | A cross-sectional study | 3129 Jordanians aged more than 18 years | Web-based validated questionnaire, The Food Insecurity Experience Scale | Unavailability of the food, especially for long time, limitations on migrant workers who work in the food sectors, the lockdowns, and movement control during the quarantine, creating food deserts in most areas | Reduced wages and loss of income affecting the most vulnerable | – | The price of all products increased | The government co-pays the price of bread, which makes it available for most individuals, and distributes bread during quarantine at a reasonable price | High |
Kuwait | ||||||||||
10 | AlTarrah et al. 2021 [50] | Cross-sectional study | 841 adults aged over 18 years; the snowball sampling method | A web-based online self-administered questionnaire | The large majority of study participants were confident in the country’s ability to provide food to meet consumer needs | Significant differences in less money as reasons for decreased food consumption between Kuwaiti and non-Kuwaiti ones | – | Around 40% of participants reported no change in the type of food they consumed | The governments’ immediate response to the pandemic and the implementation of robust public health measures to control the spread of the virus | Medium |
Lebanon | ||||||||||
11 | Kharroubi et al. 2021 [51] | Forecasting the trends of food insecurity (2018–2022) using the GWP data while considering multiple income reduction scenarios | Nationally representative adults aged 15 years and older (n = 3000), three-stage stratified cluster sampling approach | Gallup World Poll (GWP) 2015–2017 Household data, Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) | Post crises, food insecurity was estimated to reach an average of 36–39% in 2021 and between 36 and 39% by 2022, considering a 50–70% income reduction | More than half the population is expected to be below the national poverty line, and suffering from plummeting purchasing power | An emergency agriculture plan recommending an increase in local agricultural production, particularly of high-value “cash crops”, as well as a reduction in the gap between food supply and food demand; providing in-kind aid and small loans to the local farmer | High | ||
Libya | ||||||||||
12 | IOM, WFP, 2021 [44] | Web-based and face-to-face surveys (quantitative and qualitative data) | Up to 1in 5 migrants interviewed | Key indicators, including food consumption, economic vulnerability, and asset depletion | While mobility restrictions have eased, the economic situation in Libya remains heavily affected | More than half are considered marginally food secure. Migrants’ income had been affected negatively particularly among daily wage workers | – | Some migrants are further eroding their capacity to deal with future shocks, thereby increasing their vulnerability to food insecurity | The use of crisis or emergency livelihood coping strategies, such as reducing essential expenditure on health care or education, or engaging in high-risk jobs or activities to mitigate food consumption challenges increased | High |
Morocco | ||||||||||
13 | Bilali et al. 2021 [52] | An online survey | 340 adult consumers, The snowball-sampling approach | A standardized questionnaire | The extraordinary hoarding caused by the epidemic, pasta, wheat, and salt shelves have been depleted | A rush toward supermarkets has been observed, and demand for flour and grains has jumped. A surge in food prices | – | 52.65% of the participants said they had stocked up on food | Despite promises from the government and stores that the food supply system could satisfy, depletion of food items occurred | Medium |
Oman | ||||||||||
14 | Ben Hassen et al. 2022 [53] | Survey | 356 Omani adult consumers, The snowball sampling with a non-probability sample technique | An online questionnaire using the Survey Monkey platform | The epidemic, however, had little effect on food supplies or | The epidemic, however, had little effect on food prices | – | Stocking up food by the non-Omani was mainly motivated by concerns about obtaining enough food and rising food prices | The authority has made full preparations to confront the Coronavirus pandemic and made continuous efforts to monitor markets and regulate prices | Medium |
Qatar | ||||||||||
15 | Ben Hassen et al. 2020 [54] | Online survey | 579 voluntary respondents | Structured questionnaire | Hypermarkets reported no major hindrance to the supply chain of food items | Prices remained stable with no impact on the abundance of goods, food, and consumer products | – | Non-Qatari respondents stocked up on more food than Qataris | Diversifying its global supply chains, improving its ports and rail infrastructures as well as increasing the local production | Medium |
Saudi Arabia | ||||||||||
16 | Hanbazaza, 2021 [55] | Cross-sectional study | 605 adult residents of all provinces in Saudi Arabia, aged 20 years or more, and willing to participate in the study | An online questionnaire | Low quality and limited food available in the supermarkets | About one-third of the population was experiencing food insecurity. Increased food prices | – | The economic lowdown caused by the pandemic has had a devastating effect on jobs, incomes, and businesses, | Providing funds to support the private sector, small businesses, economic activities, as well as assistance to those most affected by this pandemic; free food baskets to families in need | Medium |
17 | Almoraie, 2021 [55] | Cross-sectional study | 968 participants from all Western regions and comprised both men and women within the age range of 18–60 years | An online self-administered questionnaire | Absence of grocery stores in the neighborhood and food unavailability in the neighboring grocery stores and supermarkets | The majority of participants indicated not having any difficulties with the availability of food sources; a small percentage of low-income reported eating less or undesired food, as well as eating fewer than three meals a day | – | A rise in food prices | The support given to food supply chains across the country, which eased the process of food supplies reaching the consumer, including securing food supplies quickly and reliably in case of an emergency shortage | Medium |
Somalia | ||||||||||
18 | FAO, 2021 [37] | Household survey | 2720 rural households, 52 extension workers, 56 agricultural input vendors and 52 food traders across 17 regions every 3 months | Computer-assisted telephone interviews | 24% reported a decline in their planted area compared to normal | 86% of households consumed between 5 and 12 food groups according to their Household Dietary Diversity Scores | 35% of households reported experiencing some type of shock (drought, higher food prices, higher crop and livestock production costs, conflict, and insecurity) | To obtain food or income, 66 $ of households engaged in negative livelihood-based coping strategies. Cash assistance, as well as access to water, animal feed, and veterinary services | High | |
Sudan | ||||||||||
19 | FAO, 2021 [39] | An assessment using primary and secondary data | A sample of 448 key informants working for the Ministry of Agriculture was interviewed across 16 states | – | Limited internal and cross-border trading has hampered the food supply system. The closure of food markets across the country decreased the availability of basic food commodities | Hindering physical access of many poor households to areas, where they normally generate income through labor, increased food commodity prices | – | Prices of feed and animal drugs were reported to be much higher | The depletion of productive assets due to the adoption of negative coping mechanisms (reducing non-essential food expenditures, selling agricultural productive assets (e.g., livestock and tools), and seed consumption might erode the capacity of rural households to prepare for the following agricultural season; no further increases in new agricultural programs | High |
Tunisia | ||||||||||
20 | ElKadhi et al. 2020 [41] | Estimation via modeling | – | – | Agriculture output fell by 16.2% | Higher income urban households will see the largest income losses, although lower income urban households also will experience significant income reductions | Social transfers toward poorer households and re-opening the economy will be critical to reducing employment and income losses, especially in manufacturing and retail | High | ||
Yemen | ||||||||||
21 | FAO, 2021 [38] | Survey | 1775 households, eight agricultural extension officers and 90 food traders key informant interviews (KII) of agricultural extension officers | Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) module, Computer-assisted telephone interviews | About 70% of the food traders reported a decrease in food commodity supply, and 87% reported price increases in main food commodities | 53.6% of the households find themselves in a state of moderate food insecurity or worse; 19% mainly to COVID-19 | Over one-third of the surveyed households reported more than a 50% decrease in their main source of income | The majority of households have been resorting to borrowing money or buying food on credit; reducing essential non-food expenditures; and reducing expenses on agricultural, livestock, or fisheries inputs. Establishment of a regular food security and livelihood monitoring system | High | |
22 | CARE, 2021 [45] | Quantitative and qualitative approaches, Literature review | In the two rural and urban districts, 22 key informants interviews with community leaders, health professionals, government offices and humanitarian actors; 410 household survey; 12 Focus group discussions, 10 case studies | The Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) | Some humanitarian partners (but not CARE) decided to reduce the frequency of the emergency food assistance delivered | The most commonly reported areas of their life that have been most impacted were income and livelihood (84%), food/nutrition (58%), Unemployment increased | 57.7% of households experienced ‘moderate’ and ‘severe’ food insecurity, and 26.1% experienced ‘severe’ food insecurity | About 61% of respondents reported that they are purchasing food on credit or borrowed money. The already dire humanitarian situation is urgent in response to meeting priority life-saving humanitarian needs for food security and livelihoods | High | |
23 | Elsabbagh et al. 2021 [42] | Modeling an 80% decline in remittance volumes | Information on personal tax rates and household savings rates structure | SAM-based multiplier model | National GDP is estimated to have fallen by 8.5%. Agriculture was estimated to drop in output by more than 9% | Household income fell on average by 12.5%. The poorest households suffered a severe income loss of approximately 21% | – | – | Options for local recovery measures are limited. Nonetheless, Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries could enact concrete policies to help Yemeni migrant workers survive the adverse impacts of COVID-19 in their labor markets | High |