Table 5 Two-step system GMM model, the interaction of trade openness and institutional quality on food security

ADESA (− 1),

0.634***

0.948***

0.879***

0.835***

(0.027)

(0.007)

(0.012)

(0.015)

APS (− 1)

0.632**

0.839***

0.421***

0.625***

(0.298)

(0.289)

(0.123)

(0.118)

Openness*governance

0.284**

0.253**

(0.124)

(0.123)

Openness*political

− 0.126***

− 0.193***

(0.049)

(0.057)

Openness*corruption

0.023***

(0.003)

0.117*

(0.061)

Openness*Landlocked

0.280***

0.047***

(0.028)

(0.014)

Corruption

− 1.052***

− 0.102*

(0.222)

(0.061)

Remittances

0.293

0.140

0.336**

0.273*

0.600***

0.514***

0.036

− 0.077

(0.312)

(0.088)

(0.136)

(0.161)

(0.189)

(0.159)

(0.038)

(0.055)

Education

0.002

0.001

0.003*

0.003*

0.007***

0.007***

-0.000

0.002***

(0.002)

(0.001)

(0.002)

(0.002)

(0.001)

(0.001)

(0.000)

(0.001)

Log (GDP)

0.562***

0.518***

0.899***

1.450***

0.098

− 0.022

0.092**

− 0.429***

(0.112)

(0.062)

(0.225)

(0.181)

(0.129)

(0.138)

(0.042)

(0.068)

SAGDP

0.037***

0.044***

0.035***

0.054***

− 0.025***

− 0.041***

0.004**

− 0.024***

(0.007)

(0.004)

(0.005)

(0.006)

(0.005)

(0.006)

(0.002)

(0.003)

Population growth

-0.317

0.095

-0.261

0.398***

1.056***

1.056***

− 0.060

0.210***

(0.198)

(0.095)

(0.227)

(0.149)

(0.201)

(0.217)

(0.057)

(0.051)

Natural disasters

− 0.198***

− 0.142***

− 0.072***

(0.222)

− 0.088***

− 0.068***

− 0.051***

0.287***

(0.016)

(0.017)

(0.016)

0.355*

(0.016)

(0.016)

(0.008)

(0.080)

Inflation

-0.163***

-0.153***

-0.098***

− 0.087***

− 0.129***

− 0.121***

− 0.173***

− 0.135***

(0.015)

(0.011)

(0.015)

(0.020)

(0.019)

(0.018)

(0.013)

(0.014)

Agri. productivity

0.006**

0.003***

0.002

− 0.003

0.011***

0.012***

0.022***

0.018***

(0.003)

(0.001)

(0.001)

(0.002)

(0.002)

(0.002)

(0.002)

(0.002)

Landlocked

− 1.043***

0.002

− 0.084***

− 0.043***

− 0.038**

− 0.018***

(0.130)

(0.013)

(0.021)

(0.017)

(0.016)

(0.005)

Constant

− 680.47***

− 528.72***

− 820.90***

− 467.29***

− 304.69**

− 194.61

-59.58*

332.97***

(130.079)

(70.530)

(212.507)

(166.525)

(128.790)

(132.270)

(35.322)

(60.268)

Observations

458

357

404

404

458

458

404

404

Number of countries

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

Number of instruments ^f

21

21

21

21

21

21

21

21

AR1 test

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

AR2 test

0.984

0.946

0.172

0.895

0.568

0.301

0.099

0.193

Hansen test

0.570

0.270

0.719

0.744

0.844

0.893

0.742

0.413

Diff-Hansen ^g

0.490

0.830

0.641

0.167

0.897

0.859

0.262

0.299