Table 4 Two-step system GMM model, effects of trade openness on food security
From: New evidence in the relationship between trade openness and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Dietary energy supply adequacy (ADESA) | Average protein supply (APS) | ||||
ADESA (− 1) | 0.973*** | 0.947*** | 0.912*** | |||
(0.003) | (0.008) | (0.010) | ||||
APS (− 1) | 0.218*** | 0.176*** | 0.239** | |||
(0.078) | (0.050) | (0.100) | ||||
Openness | 0.018*** | 0.061*** | 0.045** | 0.061** | ||
(0.006) | (0.012) | (0.023) | (0.023) | |||
Globalization | 0.022*** | 0.123*** | ||||
(0.007) | (0.004) | |||||
Corruption | 0.732*** | 0.507*** | 0.187 | 0.030 | ||
(0.145) | (0.115) | (0.113) | (0.047) | |||
Remittances | 0.204*** | 0.076 | 0.021 | 0.447*** | 0.360*** | − 0.028 |
(0.054) | (0.069) | (0.199) | (0.107) | (0.125) | (0.029) | |
Education | 0.001*** | 0.286*** | 0.294* | 0.006*** | 0.005*** | 0.001* |
(0.000) | (0.067) | (0.173) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.000) | |
Log (GDP) | 0.248*** | 0.245*** | 0.730*** | 0.286 | 0.248 | − 0.012 |
(0.048) | (0.082) | (0.132) | (0.176) | (0.167) | (0.032) | |
SAGDP | 0.016*** | 0.018*** | 0.094*** | − 0.008 | 0.009 | 0.002 |
(0.001) | (0.001) | (0.005) | (0.015) | (0.011) | (0.003) | |
Population growth | − 0.252*** | -0.027 | − 0.002 | − 0.917*** | − 0.765*** | − 0.011 |
(0.042) | (0.050) | (0.137) | (0.131) | (0.161) | (0.040) | |
Natural disasters | 0.009 | − 0.771*** | -0.175 | − 0.269*** | -0.225*** | − 0.003 |
(0.052) | (0.090) | (0.174) | (0.059) | (0.056) | (0.008) | |
Inflation | − 0.106*** | − 0.115*** | -0.111*** | − 0.185*** | − 0.103*** | − 0.022* |
(0.006) | (0.011) | (0.010) | (0.052) | (0.038) | (0.012) | |
Agri. productivity | 0.003*** | 0.003*** | 0.006*** | 0.010*** | 0.011*** | 0.000 |
(0.000) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.001) | |
Landlocked | − 0.022*** | − 0.045*** | -0.028 | -0.034** | 0.025 | − 0.014*** |
(0.005) | (0.013) | (0.019) | (0.015) | (0.017) | (0.004) | |
Constant | − 311.597*** | − 332.356*** | − 740.930*** | − 422.154** | − 395.994** | 17.318 |
(45.320) | (76.852) | (127.943) | (178.156) | (171.505) | (35.317) | |
Observations | 555 | 555 | 555 | 555 | 555 | 555 |
Number of countries | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 37 |
Number of instruments c | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 24 |
AR1 test | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.012 | 0.000 | 0.003 | 0.010 |
AR2 test | 0.324 | 0.157 | 0.978 | 0.723 | 0.998 | 426 |
Hansen test | 0.909 | 0.667 | 0.508 | 0.099 | 0.126 | 0.153 |
Diff-Hansen | 0.374 | 0.768 | 0.331 | 0.979 | 0.212 | 0.889 |