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Table 4 Latent and observed variables of the empowerment process affected by rural–urban linkages

From: The role of rural–urban linkages in perceived environmental effects of farmers for participation in sustainable food security plans

Effective component

(Latent variable)

Observed variables

Symbol

Researches

People flow

An urban and rural specialist workforce

AQ1

Tacoli et al. (2013) [17]

Moa (2013) [15]

Burchi and De Muro (2007) [70]; Nwokolo (2015) [72]; Echebiri et al. (2017) [3]

Douglass (1998) [1]

Balakrishnan (2005) [2]

Targeting institutionalism

Goods and services flow

Agricultural services and production support

AQ2

Transportation of products

Innovation flow

Innovation in production

AQ3

Branding and marketing

Innovation in product supply

Information flow

workshops

AQ4

ICT

Capital flow

Investing in formal and informal resources

AQ5

Production and service investment

Economic organizations and enterprises and microcredit

Empowerment

Training

Specialized training in promoting the production of new and higher quality products

BQ1

Akkoyunlu (2015) [4]; Fahsbender et al. (2020) [16]; Galièa et al. (2019) [74]; Diiro et al. (2018) [14]

Ramos and Prideaux (2014) [69];

Rowlands (1995) [77]

Productive and non-productive training to improve the knowledge and scientific and technical skills of farmers

BQ2

Holding training courses to turn traditional and subsistence agriculture into industrial and competitive and informing them

BQ3

Knowledge and skills

Knowledge and information and skills relating to agricultural and non-agricultural production

CQ1

Knowledge and information and skills related to production and service activities

CQ2

Accessing resources

Accessing to environmental resources such as water, fertile soil and suitable land

DQ1

Accessing to formal and informal financial resources

DQ2

Accessing to local organizations and institutions, social networks to offer products and exchange information

DQ3

Accessing to product transportation networks

DQ4

Institutionalism

Urban organizations in connecting to villages

EQ1

Formal and informal urban institutions interacting with rural and agricultural institutions

EQ2

Integrating land management through a partnership with legal organizations

EQ3

  1. Source: A review of the related literature, 2020