The impact of climate smart agriculture on household welfare in smallholder integrated crop–livestock farming systems: evidence from Zimbabwe

Table 3 Food security ESR model results

Variable	Selection equation (CSA adoption)		Outcome equation (food security)
	Selection equation (CSA adoption)		Non-adopter		Adopter
	Coefficient	Robust Std. Err.	Coefficient	Robust Std. Err.	Coefficient	Robust Std. Err.
HH education	− 0.05	0.05	0.06	0.17	0.04^b	0.02
Household size			0.18	0.41	0.01	0.03
Arable land size	0.10	0.08	0.102^b	0.077	− 0.01	0.03
Distance output market	0.003^b	0.002	0.11	0.11	− 4.5	0.002
Extension contact	− 0.02	0.03	− 0.04	0.40	− 0.001	0.02
LogMaizearea			0.21	2.41	− 0.19	0.25
Off-farm Income			0.001	0.003	0.00	0.00
TLU	0.25^b	0.10	0.29	0.18	0.06^c	0.02
Access to safe water			− 0.48	1.54	− 0.43^b	0.17
Access to sanitation			0.03	1.78	0.81^c	0.25
Distance extension	− 0.01	0.001
Distance input market	− 0.007^b	0.004
HH age	− 0.01	0.02
HH farm experience	0.02	0.01
Local traders	0.01	0.03
Group membership	− 0.24	0.33
Access to weather forecasts	0.56	0.58
Draft livestock	− 0.28	0.22
HH labour size	− 0.02	0.05
Awareness CSA	0.12	0.70
Communication asset ownership	0.84	0.92
Transport asset ownership	− 0.67	0.55
Tillage implement asset	− 0.23	0.25
Fertile soil	0.75^a	0.43
Credit access	− 0.16	0.38
_cons	0.91	0.68	4.17	6.58	5.75^c	0.38
/lns0	0.66	1.46
/lns1	0.31^c	0.05
/r0	− 0.57	3.38
/r1	0.11	0.34
sigma0	1.93	2.82
sigma1	1.36	0.07
rho0	− 0.52	2.48
rho1	0.11	0.33

ISSN: 2048-7010